Notably, participants in our sample of studies originated from 16 areas across North America, South America, Europe, Oceania, and Asia, and the findings suggest that the PDB phenomenon may be cross-cultural. The PDB phenomenon was found in 67.44% of the studies (58 of 86), and most participants were recorded as having adopted the “gain-stay loss-randomize” strategy to cope with uncertainty. In the present review, 86 studies featuring data on individual deck selections were drawn from an initial sample of 958 IGT-related studies published from 1994 to 2017 for further investigation. Some studies have attributed such performance inconsistencies to cultural differences. In recent years, research has emphasized the “prominent deck B (PDB) phenomenon” among normal (control group) participants, in which they favor “bad” deck B with its high-frequency gain structure-a finding that is incongruent with the original IGT hypothesis concerning foresightedness. The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) has become a remarkable experimental paradigm of dynamic emotion decision making.

4Research Center for Nonlinear Analysis and Optimization, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

3Department of Psychology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

2Shin Kong Wu Ho-Su Memorial Hospital Sleep Center, Taipei, Taiwan.1Department of Psychology, Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan.We-Kang Lee 1,2 Ching-Jen Lin 3,4 Li-Hua Liu 1 Ching-Hung Lin 3,4* Yao-Chu Chiu 1*

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